Historical Sciences Studies

Abstract With the rise to power of the Pahlavi government, the country’s health policies, which had begun during the constitutional era, were pursued with greater seriousness and expanded during the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah. Meat was one of the most essential food items for the people during the Pahlavi era, and dissatisfaction with the health situation, crises, and problems arising from its consumption were always among the concerns of the day. Given this necessity, monitoring meat was of great importance to the government. Therefore, one of the first health policies in the Pahlavi government was the approval of health regulations for butchers and slaughterhouses. This study aims, relying on written sources, newspapers, magazines, and especially newly discovered archival documents to answer the question: what strategy did the Pahlavi government adopt to improve the health status of meat and monitor its hygiene, and how effective was it? The findings indicate that during the specified period, the Pahlavi government, aiming to enhance meat hygiene and through cooperation with various institutions, took effective steps such as physical sanitation, increased health supervision and inspection, issuance of health cards, and health education to improve and promote the health quality of meat

Abstract The writings produced following research and studies in the field of the history of international law are usually partial and isolated. If only the history of relations between countries or ultimately the extent of countries' adherence to international principles and rules and treaties concluded with other states were addressed. The research explored and examined in this regard the question of what conceptual changes the institution of the state has undergone in its historical process in international law. In fact, the purpose of the research is to explain and describe important and influential concepts and their role in historical developments in international law. As a result, the behavior of states in the international system and the history of international relations are not explained. Rather, we examine the historical process of developments in international law and its most important actor, the state, from a conceptual and formal perspective. In the discourse of international law, the state in its most primitive form had the characteristics of personalism and feudalism, but after the emergence of new concepts in public law resulting from the thinking and wisdom of lawyers, it reached statism and the creation of a nation of states. Then, after the emergence of new concepts and their experience in the process of international relations, interdependence entered. Mastering human rights and a humanistic approach to international law and analyzing the behavior and performance of states with human rights criteria is the latest stage in the state transition process.

Abstract Iran's national oil movement is one of the most important and influential events in Iran's contemporary history. This event has influenced the events after it. The present article analyzes the collective action of national, religious, and left-wing parties (with a focus on the Iran Party, Fada'iyan-e Islam Society, and Tudeh Party of Iran) between the two coups on 16 - 19 August 1953. Charles Tilly's "Resource Mobilization" theory is employed to explain the behavior of these political groups and analyze their actions. The data collection method is based on library and documentary research, while the data analysis follows a historical approach with a descriptive-analytical perspective. The aim of this study is to identify the behavioral patterns of the three mentioned political groups (the Iran Party, Fada'iyan-e Islam Society, and Tudeh Party of Iran) on 16 - 19 August 1953, and to answer the question: Why, despite favorable conditions following the failure of the August 16 coup, did these claimant groups fail to achieve their objectives? The research findings indicate that these political groups were unable to engage in effective collective action during the period between the two coups due to the absence of an influential organizational structure, failure to utilize various resources and mobilization methods, increased costs following state suppression, lack of coalition-building among the groups, neglecting the emerging opportunities, and disregard for existing threats. Consequently, they failed to achieve their goals. Investigating the reasons for the failure of political parties' policies is an important issue

Abstract Seyyed Ahmed was from Bareilly who went to Delhi to study and became one of the students of Shah AbdulAziz of Delhi. In a fatwa, Shah AbdulAziz declared the Indian subcontinent Dar al Harb, and Seyyed Ahmed, inspired by his opinions, decided to remove the Indian subcontinent from non-Muslim rule through the principle of Jihad.Ahmed Barili's main goal was to liberate the subcontinent from British domination. Therefore, we first decided to form a region far from the British government and then make it a base for the liberation of the Indian subcontinent. Therefore, Ahmed Barili migrated to the northwestern regions of the subcontinent and, with the efforts of the Jamaat-e-Mujahideen movement, prepared for jihad against the Sikhs and the British. So the main question is what political and military strategies did Ahmed Barili adopt to use personal computers and Sikhs? The claim, using the library method and the use of descriptive and historical analysis, is that Ahmed Barili adopted the dual paths of migration and jihad to create Dar al-Islam and confront the Sikh state. The first research is that Ahmed Barili was the first Muslim in the Indian subcontinent to issue a fatwa of jihad against British colonialism and for the first time put forward the theory of Islamic rule over Sharia and called himself Amir al-Mu'minin. Despite winning the battle of Akora, he was defeated and killed in the two battles of Shaidu and Balakot

Abstract The fish motif, as one of the types of aquatic motifs alongside the element of water in Iranian painting, has various and multi-layered symbolic meanings. This motif, which has been represented in various forms in the history of Iranian art; in addition to its visual aesthetic aspects, has symbolic meanings that are linked to the religious, mythological, and cultural beliefs of Iranian society. In this article, the symbolic themes of the fish motif in selected paintings from the Ilkhanid to Safavid schools have been examined. The aim of the research, in addition to stating the history of the implementation of the fish motif in Iranian art works and reviewing the structural features of this motif, is to examine the symbolic meanings of the aforementioned motif in selected paintings from Iranian painting schools. The question here is: What symbolic themes and visual features did the fish motif have in the paintings? In addition, in which parts of the history of Iranian art can the roots of these symbolic meanings be found? How has the visual evolution of the fish motif in paintings been? The collection of this material has been done through a library and documentary method, with a historical approach and in a descriptive-analytical manner. The results of the research show that, in Iranian painting, the fish is not only a symbol of life, blessing, and stability, but also acts as a mediator between the earthly and spiritual worlds and has played an important role in explaining the worldview of Iranian artists. Although this motif has not played a frequent role in painting, in cases where it has been used, it has often played a key role in the visual narrative of the painting, such as: the fish motif in the painting of Prophet Yunus (AS) and the whale. The findings indicate that the fish motif in paintings acquires a special meaning in accordance with the narrative context and overall theme of the scene. However, in a more general view, this motif is an influential and meaningful element in the compositional structure of the paintings, and its presence, often beyond its decorative aspect, carries symbolic concepts that add to the semantic richness of the work.

Abstract One of the significant topics in historical and literary studies is the examination of the relationship between literary texts and historical events. From this perspective, a literary text can be considered a document that, alongside other records, may be analyzed by researchers. This article explores the notion that, at times, a literary text produces a narrative that others later cite and perceive as a historical account. The book Kalila wa-Dimna is one of the most distinguished works in Persian literature. According to the narrative by Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ in his translation of the book—told through the voice of Borzūya the physician—a narrative is created that others have considered historical and continue to reference to this day, even though the account provided by Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ regarding the book's origin does not align with historical evidence. Apparently, Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ fabricated a historical context in order to express his religious ideas, inventing the character of Borzūya the physician and attributing his own thoughts to him. In later periods, other writers also referenced Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ’s statements, gradually transforming Borzūya into a historical figure. This article, through an analysis of Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ’s preface as well as the chapter on Borzūya the physician from Kalila and Dimna, illustrates how researchers have come to accept Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ’s accounts as historical evidence.

Abstract Qasem Ali Qayeni is one of the Persian-writing and obscure scholars from the late Safavid era, contemporaneous with Shah Sulayman. He authored numerous works in astronomy, astrological rulings, the craft of astrolabe construction, optics, occult sciences, and Quranic exegesis. Nevertheless, not only have many of his known books remained unexamined and unedited, but numerous lost works—mentioned by him in his other treatises—have yet to be identified and cataloged. One such unknown work is the manuscript treatise Matāliʿ al-ʿĀrifīn. Only a single copy of this treatise has been identified in the library of the Hawza ʿIlmiyya of Hazrat Vali-e Asr in Khansar. Matāliʿ al-ʿĀrifīn is composed in theoretical philosophy and theology, and it essentially consists of responses in Persian, expressed in a simple and straightforward manner free of complexity, to the philosophical-theological questions posed by one of the kings of Gil and Daylam, whose name is not mentioned in the treatise. The present study aims to investigate the codicology and bibliography of Matāliʿ al-ʿĀrifīn.The findings of this research demonstrate that, beyond his renown as a builder of astronomical instruments and a scholar in astronomy, occult sciences, Quranic exegesis, and optics, Qayeni has bequeathed a noteworthy contribution to theoretical philosophy and theology. He was familiar with the theological works preceding his own, and through authoring Matāliʿ al-ʿĀrifīn, he has shown acquaintance with the viewpoints of both Akhbari theologians and philosophical theologians—the two major theological intellectual currents that emerged after Muhammad Amin Astarabadi and Mulla Sadra—and has drawn upon them in this work. Given that Qayeni levels criticisms against certain beliefs of earlier theologians and articulates his own views in an argumentative and explicit fashion, this treatise can illuminate the trends and intellectual pursuits in theological-philosophical matters among Shiite scholars following Mulla Sadra, aid in the recognition of their works, and offer a perspective on the intellectual, scientific, and philosophical dynamics of these scholars during the final years of the Safavid era

Abstract Islamic civilization, as one of the main centers of scientific and civilizational developments in the third to tenth centuries AH/ninth to sixteenth centuries AD, played an unparalleled role in the collection, development, and dissemination of world knowledge. In a large part of the eastern lands and during the aforementioned period, Islamic civilization not only preserved the heritage of the Greek, Indian, Iranian, and Roman civilizations, but also led to the production of new knowledge with remarkable innovations. Among them, the knowledge of geography and cartography, as one of the valuable achievements of this civilization, has a special place. Islamic cartography, by intelligently adapting the knowledge of its predecessors and being fully aware of geographical sources such as Ptolemy's Almagest, and combining it with new findings in the form of different styles and schools of map drawing, quickly became a leading field in the science of cartography and left a rich legacy for other civilizations. After the Middle Ages, Europeans, motivated by the discovery of new lands, needed accurate and scientific maps and geographical texts, and they were able to obtain a large part of them from the scientific geographical capital of Muslims. The turning point of this civilizational shift occurred on the island of "Sicily", although Europe had been familiar with Muslim geographical works for a century or two earlier. This study, using the method of historical research and comparative analysis, aims to examine the role and impact of cartography during the Islamic period on modern European cartography, and analyzes the status of cartography in both civilizational areas and the process and ways of transferring cartographic knowledge from the East (Islam) to the West (Europe). This study highlights the importance of cultural and scientific interactions between civilizations and shows that Islamic cartography is one of the foundations of modern European cartography.

Abstract The apparent tolerance of government leaders with Christian missionaries in Iran goes back to the Safavid period. The Qajar kings, who followed the Safavids in religious practice and profession and were famous for religious orientation, did not oppose the presence and activities of individual Christian missionaries such as Henry Martin, Joseph Wolf, etc. in Iran from the beginning. The presence and activities of foreign missionaries in Iran during the Qajar era is one of the important topics in the social and religious history of Iran. Qajar Iran was the destination of many Christian missionaries, and during this period, French, English, German, Russian, etc. missionaries spread Christianity in many areas of Iran in different ways. Now, in this Period among the evangelizing groups that entered Iran from the middle of the Qajar period, the American evangelizing missions were the first Protestant missionary groups that started evangelizing in Iran. One of the most important issues about the American missions has been the way the Qajar government officials deal with the members of these missions. The current research seeks to investigate the encounter of Qajar courtiers, including kings, ministers, local governors, military leaders, princes, etc., with the American missionaries and their activities, relying on the the descriptive-analytical method and citing library sources. The results of the research show that the confrontation between Qajar leaders and American missionaries is divided into two types: interactive and confrontational. In this way, each of the Qajar officials showed different behaviors and supported or opposed them according to the prevailing conditions, interests, interest in modernity, the type of action of the American missionaries towards the Muslims, etc. Also, the level of interaction and cooperation of the Qajar officials was more than their opposition and confrontation with the American missionaries. This caused the expansion of the activities of the American mission and their long-term presence in Iran

Abstract This study examines the Imittu system (fixed/assessed estimation) in date palm garden contracts in Achaemenid Babylonia and attempts to analyze its function in the economic and administrative management of royal estates. Using cuneiform text analysis methods and examining three Imittu contracts from the Musayev collection dated to the 21st year of Darius I (501 BCE), this research investigates the structure and function of this contractual system. The study employs comparative methods and quantitative analysis to calculate crop yields, garden areas, and wages. The research seeks to answer how the Imittu system operated in managing royal estates and what role it played in the economic-administrative structure of Achaemenid Babylonia; furthermore, it examines how the relationship between estimated yield and garden areas, along with additional obligations, was determined. The findings indicate that the Imittu system was a complex and efficient system for managing agricultural estates, following a three-tiered management structure. The estimated yield (ranging from 18 to 100 kur) was proportional to garden areas (from 0.56 to 3.128 kur of land), and additional obligations such as silver payments were calculated accordingly. This system also demonstrates the successful integration of Babylonian administrative traditions with the managerial needs of the Achaemenid Empire.

Abstract During the Sasanian period, population movements-including wartime captives and state-organized resettlements-played an important role in shaping the empire's economic development and revenue system. This study examines the relationship between these movements and the economic and fiscal structure of the Sasanian Empire. It seeks to answer the question of how such migrations contributed to changes in the composition of the labor force, the expansion of trade networks, and the consolidation of the Sasanian tax system. The study takes a qualitative approach through the interpretation of historical sources. A wide range of sources is used, including Sasanian inscriptions, Pahlavi texts, Roman-Byzantine, Armenian, and Syriac sources, as well as historiographies from the Islamic period. The evidence suggests that by relocating populations to agricultural, strategic, and commercial regions, the Sasanian state not only secured a labor force for production and trade, but also created favorable conditions for regular taxation, strengthened central authority, and increased economic productivity. These population transfers also contributed to the dynamism of trade routes and the growth of new economic centers. The results indicate that population transfer was one of the Sasanian government's strategic tools for implementing economic policy, managing human resources, and ensuring stable state revenues.

Abstract This article is dedicated to the meaning, concept, and reason for minting the legend "l’st" on the coins of several Sasanian Kings of Kings in the fourth and fifth centuries CE. The author has attempted to answer the question of why this legend was minted on Sasanian coins, based on textual studies, epigraphic sources, and historical analysis. Furthermore, the hypothesis is proposed that the legend "l’st”, transliteration of rāst, is not only related to the concept of justice but may also indicate the Kings of Kings’ adherence to personal orthodoxy (rāst-dēnīh), which plays an important role in Zoroastrian teachings.It seems that in the critical conditions of the late fourth century and early fifth century, when the Sasanian court needed the support and cooperation of the Zoroastrian religious institution, the minting of the title rāst on the coins of the Kings of Kings of this period indicates the Sasanian court’s efforts to attract Zoroastrian audiences, especially the clergy, and to gain legitimacy. Additionally, it appears that the words and compounds in which the term rāst is used have focused more on the religious-moral aspect of justice rather than on the technical terms of legal science.Textual evidence, both in Middle Persian Zoroastrian texts and in Islamic texts, indicates the continuity of the claim to justice by rulers throughout the Sasanian era and its transfer to the Islamic period.