Historical Sciences Studies

Abstract At the beginning of the 20^th century, Bushehr was the most important Iranian port in the Persian Gulf. Because of this, the customs of this city had a vital function as an important source of revenue for the central and local rulers and they paid attention to it. The colonial and all-round presence of British agents in the Persian Gulf and their attention to this port and the establishment of consulates by several European countries had raised this importance. These circumstances caused several citizens of Belgium to go to Bushehr to manage the southern customs after the presence of Joseph Naus in the Iranian financial administration and his request to send other experts from Belgium. Among them was a young man named Lambert Molitor, who came to Iran with his two brothers, August and Camille. Lambert Molitor’s unpublished diaries provide researchers with new insights into the situation in Bushehr and other southern customs. Based on these notes, the present study, while examining the situation of Bushehr customs, deals with the efforts and challenges facing customs officials as a fledgling institution and evaluates the record of Belgian advisers in this regard. This change took place after the issuance of Muzaffar al-Din Shah’s decree indicating the abolition of the Iranian customs lease. Disobedience of some local governors and resistance to the implementation of the new law, extensive smuggling of goods and especially weapons, lack of appropriate facilities and finally the expansion of areas and coastal ports of the Persian Gulf from the Mohammareh (Khorramshahr) to the shores of the Oman Sea were among the problems facing Lambert Molitor and his other Belgian and Iranian colleagues. Despite some negative approaches to the Belgians’ performance in Iran, the increase in customs revenue and the establishment of an organized structure for it were among the achievements of Molitor and his compatriots. Although, this group did not have much success in training Iranian staff.

Abstract Which parts of Arabian Peninsula were under the Achaemenids’ control? and how did they administer those regions? Researchers have widely different viewpoints on the answers to these questions. The present paper is an attempt to clarify the political and administrative policy of the Achaemenids regarding this land, through reviewing previous research, and according to new historical and archaeological evidence. This study indicates that a large part of the peninsula was unknown and out of reach at that time. So, it cannot be considered as an integrated geographical and political unit. It seems that, Arabia, administratively and politically, was divided into separate parts: the satrapy of Arabāya from southern Syria and the Negev desert to the northern Hijaz; and some areas along the southern coasts of the Persian Gulf, such as Bahrain (Tiliman/Dilmun) and Oman (Maka), were also considered as separate political units. The Achaemenids’ administrative system managed the southern coasts of the Persian Gulf through the satrapies of Babylon and Makran (14^th Satrapy), and they had under control the transit areas of northern and western Arabia through an alliance with the Qedarite Confederation. The expansion of qanats and the revenues from the incense trade show that there has been a mutually beneficial relationship between the two sides.

Abstract Egypt has hosted a minority sect called Copt since the time of Christ. They had a long presence, but under conditions that never seemed to be perfectly desirable. Therefore contradictions, including cautious thinking along with extreme desire for martyrdom, religious faith, the hierarchy of the clergy, and the tendency towards monasticism are considered as a form of religious life. We are sure that the main disagreement and strife took place in Chalcedon and coincided with the arousal of national excitement; an independence that drew the attention to Byzantium, the political capital of Christian world. The present article, while addressing the importance of these issues, seeks to clarify the causes and aspects of the change that has taken place in the context of Christianity, especially in the Coptic society of Egypt, a group that emerged with the dream of freedom from the turmoils of a period that was full of political and religious excitements, and once again faced difficulties caused by Islamic jihad. The results allow us to assume that whatever the motive of this movement was, the political context in this period played a far more important role than religion. In the end, it led to the Copts’ unification and alliance against the empire and its representatives, both religious and non-religious.

Abstract From the third to the seventh century AH, Islamic geographers have mentioned a toponym with similar names such as Mādhruestān, Mādhrustān, and Māīdhruestān, all of which point to a place or area along the Great Khorasan Road. So far, researchers have suggested different options for the location of Mādhrustān, including Taq-e Gara, Qaleh-i Yazdgird, Sorkhah-Dizah, the route of Gilan-e Gharb and the plain of Eywan-e Gharb. The present research seeks to find out which area or ancient site can possibly conform to the toponym of Mādhrustān. The authors, based on some historical and geographical clues supported by archaeological and linguistic documents, demonstrate the conformity of Mādhruestān with the forested area of ​​“Nāwdār” in the county of Dālāhū. Moreover, the authors believe that the name “Mādhrustān” is probably rooted in the name “Media,” or as its modern name (Nāwdār = among the forest), is rooted in the most important natural feature of the mentioned area, i.e. the dense cover of the Māzū (oak) forest covering the entire area. The authors believe that the Nāwdār Palace, which is attributed to Bahram Gūr in Islamic texts, corresponds to the current Sorkhah Dizah monument which is located in the middle of the Nāwdār region. The authors believe that the name Sorkhah Dizah (red fort) probably refers to ancient Iranian stories such as those found in the book Haft Peykar according to which Bahram Gūr errected a red palace for one of his wives.

Abstract Reflecting on the historical sources of the Ilkhanids and Timurids era, and especially the local histories of the southern states of the country, especially Kerman, during the seventh to ninth centuries AH, we often come across the names of two Oghani and Jermani tribes; two tribes that have been involved in many political and military challenges and have been repeatedly reported in the sources to have clashed with the rulers of Qara Khitai and Muzaffarid. Despite the important and influential political and military role of these tribes at a time in the history of Iran, and especially in Kerman province, the background and origins of these two peoples have been neglected and their main racial roots are still unclear. Accordingly, the present article investigates the background and origin of these tribes and their racial roots. The findings show that Oghans, whom modern Afghan researchers are trying to identify as the ancestors of modern-day Afghans, have settled in the highlands of northwestern today’s Pakistan. According to most historical sources, close to them and in the north of the Suleiman Mountains and the west of the Indus River is a region called Kerman or Jerman (or Jerma), which is probably the origin of the Germans, although it cannot be ruled out that these tribes may have been Mongol or Turkish immigrants who at the same time as Genghis Khan’s invasion of Iran, they migrated to these areas.

Abstract Nasir al-Din Shah was one the most influential Iranian Kings. He wrote his diaries for many years. One of his notable characteristics was his knowledge of the French language; his diaries are considered as precious sources of information about this aspect of his personality. In many cases he used his knowledge of the French, one of which was writing in his diaries the names of the ladies from the Royal Harem with whom he had had intercourse. In such occasions, he would write the name of that lady with the French alphabet but with the Turkish pronunciation; thus he was apparently the very first Persian to have written Farsi words and sentences using the Latin alphabet. Unfortunately some of the individuals who edited his writings did so without first having gone methodically through the rules of specialized editing of manuscripts; this brought on errors and inaccuracy along with numerous manipulations of the contents of these notes, so that the recent publications of his diaries appear to be unreliable. One of these manipulations is related to changing and eliminating the Latin writings of the names of his wives. Our endeavor here, is to answer the question: what kind of information has been destroyed from various fields of knowledge such as Literature and History and more importantly, the King’s personality after changing and eliminating the Latin writings of the names of his wives made by these editors inside the Album No 97? our research methods are descriptive and analytical.

Abstract The children and grandchildren of Shiite Imams are called “Imamzadeh.” They immigrated to Iran in order to find security and social status, and over time, their number increased. The Iranians eagerly sheltered them because of their relation to the prophet. The social status of the Imamzadehs was not only due to their relation to the prophet though; friendship with the prophet’s family is the Quran’s order. Their scientific and cultural activities in Iran and holding official positions such as Sheikh al-Islam, Niqabat, Minister, administration of Dar al-Siyadeh, and custodian of the graves of mystics added to their social stature. After Imamzadehs’ death or murder, the Iranians buried them and built tombs on their graves and visited their graves. Thus, Iranians expressed their love and affection to the prophet’s family by constructing these sepulchers. These shrines had various social, scientific, cultural, and economic functions on the historical idea of Shiism in pre-Safavid Iran. Imamzadehs are considered as a factor in spreading the Islamic faith and friendship between the prophet’s family and Shiites. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate Imamzadehs’ role in the historical development of Shiism in Iran in pre-Safavid period based on architectural works and local histories. The hypothesis of the paper is that Imamzadehs have played an important role in the construction and enrichment of Shiite culture in Shiraz and Yazd before the Safavid era.

Abstract “Hui Hui Yao Fang:《回回藥方》is a large encyclopedia of Islamic medicine compiled in the late middle Ming Dynasty. This text includes a wide variety of medical knowledge including prescriptions, theories, and therapies. This paper first reviews the existing scholarly literature and history of “Hui Hui Yao Fang,” which reveals that “Hui Hui Yao Fang” is not merely a Chinese translation of one or more Arabic or Persian medical books, but rather it is a new medical encyclopedia compiled by authors who rewrote and reorganized the contents of various Chinese translations of different Arabic and Persian medical books that had been introduced to China during that period. Considering the connection between Chinese transliterations of foreign words and their annotations in this work, the second part of this paper is a comparative reading of “Hui Hui Yao Fang” and prominent Islamic medical books (Arabic and Persian). By analyzing the phenomenon of language in this book, I come to the conclusion that “Hui Hui Yao Fang” is a compilation of Chinese translations of various Arabic and Persian medical literature introduced to China during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, and that it was composed by the Huihui (Muslims from Iran and Arab nations), who assimilated into the dominant Chinese culture by using their language and medical knowledge, and referring to the original texts of Persian and Arabic medical books under the unified guidance of a government official or non-governmental organizations. The authors’ knowledge of pharmacy is limited, and this limitation reflects the general problems of Hui medical scientists and even the medical community in China at that time.